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The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was a Bronze Age urban culture that flourished between approximately 3300 and 1300 BCE in South Asia. It was one of the three earliest major civilizations of the ancient world, alongside ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The IVC was the most geographically widespread of the three, with sites found throughout modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India.
The history of the Indus Valley Civilization is categorized into several phases, with its most developed period known as the Mature Harappan Phase.
Pre-Harappan Phase (c. 7000–3300 BCE): This era features early agricultural settlements, exemplified by the site of Mehrgarh, with evidence of farming and animal domestication.
Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300–2600 BCE): Trade networks were established and communities began moving toward large, fortified urban centers, setting the stage for the mature period. Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE): This represents the civilization's peak, marked by widespread urbanization, with major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro flourishing. Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900–1300 BCE): The civilization began a gradual decline, with many cities being abandoned. The civilization was first identified in the 1920s through excavations led by archaeologists, including Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerji. They uncovered the ruins of Harappa on the bank of the Ravi River and Mohenjo-daro on the bank of the Indus River. At its height, the Indus Valley Civilization covered an area larger than Mesopotamia and Egypt combined, with over 1,000 settlements identified. West: Extends to Sutkagen Dor in Balochistan, near the coast of the Arabian Sea. East: Reaches Alamgirpur in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh. North: Spreads to Manda in the Jammu district of Jammu and Kashmir. South: Extends to Daimabad in Maharashtra. The Indus cities were known for their advanced urban planning, with baked brick houses and sophisticated sanitation systems.
Town planning: Cities were often divided into a citadel, possibly for the ruling class, and a lower town for common residents, with a distinctive grid-like layout. Dholavira is unique for having three divisions instead of two.
Drainage and water management: A hallmark of the civilization was its advanced drainage and water management. Most houses were equipped with a courtyard and a bathroom, and cities featured well-ordered wastewater drainage systems and manholes. Dholavira had a sophisticated system of reservoirs for water harvesting.
Notable structures: Large structures like the Great Bath and a granary have been excavated at Mohenjo-daro, while Lothal contains the world's earliest known dockyard.
Technology and economy
The Indus people were skilled artisans and traders with a highly developed sense of measurement.
Metallurgy: They developed advanced techniques for working with metals, creating objects from copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
Artisanship: Crafts included bead-making, carving intricate seals, and manufacturing terracotta toys and figurines, such as the famous bronze "Dancing Girl" statue.
Weights and measures: A system of uniform weights and measures indicates centralized planning and regulation of trade.
Trade: The Harappans had extensive internal and external trade networks, with seals found in Mesopotamia indicating a maritime trade relationship.
Due to the undeciphered nature of the Indus script, much about the civilization's political and religious life remains speculative. Indus script: The language, a system of symbols found on seals and tablets, has yet to be deciphered, which limits scholars' understanding of Harappan society and governance.
Religious beliefs: Archaeological findings suggest a polytheistic religion. A seal depicting a seated, horned figure surrounded by animals, identified as "Pashupati" or a proto-Shiva, points to early forms of worship. Female figurines hint at the worship of a Mother Goddess.
The decline of the IVC was not sudden and is attributed to a combination of environmental and societal factors, not a single catastrophic event.
Climate change: The climate grew cooler and drier around 1800 BCE, which likely affected agriculture. A major factor may have been the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system, which altered river courses and caused drought conditions.
Environmental factors: Evidence suggests ecological issues like deforestation, flooding, and changes in monsoon patterns contributed to the civilization's collapse.
Migration: As the environment changed and urban centers decayed, populations migrated eastward and southward toward the Ganges basin, leading to a breakdown of urban life and trade networks.